"I believe that the creation of an independent constitutional court, with the authority to declare unconstitutional laws passed by the state or federal legislatures, is probably the most significant single contribution the United States has made to the art of government."

— Chief Justice William Rehnquist’s remarks at the rededication of the National Archives (September 17, 2003).

"The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this constitution…"

— Article III of The United States Constitution

The federal judiciary, which includes the Supreme Court as well as the district and circuit courts, is one of three branches of the federal government. The judiciary has played a key role in American history and remains a powerful voice in resolving contemporary controversies. The first governing document of this nation, the Articles of Confederation, gave Congress certain judicial powers, but did not establish a distinct federal court system. During the Philadelphia Convention, discussion of a federal judiciary was not a critical part of the deliberations that led to the creation of the Constitution. However, debate over the exact nature and role of the federal judiciary did begin in the Constitutional Convention and continue through the ratification process and into the early years of the Republic.

This lesson provides an introduction to the Supreme Court. Students will learn basic facts about the Supreme Court by examining the United States Constitution and one of the landmark cases decided by that court. The lesson is designed to help students understand how the Supreme Court operates.
What powers are given to the judiciary in the Constitution?
How do the Constitution and government institutions protect judicial independence?
How does the federal judiciary system work?
Should Supreme Court justices have term limits?
Identify the key provisions in the Constitution relating the judiciary.
Explain the meaning of an independent judiciary and systems in place to protect this independence.
Evaluate how the power and influence of the Supreme Court over laws has changed over time.
Analyze the difference between a trial conducted in a district court and an appellate court hearing.
Evaluate the extent to which the U.S. judiciary system ensures justice for all.

Salem, Massachusetts in 1691 was the home of a Puritan community with a strict moral code. In addition to the difficulties of farming in a harsh climate with rough terrain, Salem faced economic and political unrest. In this community, a group of girls accused an Indian slave named Tituba of witchcraft. Tituba confessed under pressure from court officials, and her confession ignited a hunt for witches that left 19 men and women hanged, one man pressed to death, and over 150 more people in prison awaiting a trial. In this lesson, students will explore the characteristics of the Puritan community in Salem, learn about the Salem Witchcraft Trials, and try to understand how and why this event occurred.
What was life like in Puritan New England?
What were the causes and effects of the Salem Witch Trials?
To what extent do the historic records show that the accused were innocent until proven guilty?
Describe cultural practices of the majority in Puritan New England.
Create a timeline of the events of the Salem Witch Trials.
Analyze multiple interpretations of the Salem Witch Trials.
Construct a position on whether the trials were justified.

Most students recognize the name Christopher Columbus. They may be aware that his voyages ushered in the first period of sustained contact between Europeans and the Americas and its people. They may not know, however, why Columbus traveled to the New World or what happened to the native people he encountered.

In this lesson, students read excerpts from Columbus's letters and journals, as well as recent considerations of his achievements. Students reflect on the motivations behind Columbus's explorations, his reactions to what he found and the consequences, intended and unintended, of his endeavor.